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 13. COLD FUSION BY PLASMA ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER

 

       Cold nuclear fusion is the first hypothesis of a source of additional energy in heavy water electrolysis. Fleischmann and Pons, the American electrochemists, are the authors of this hypothesis . They reported about it in 1989 [50], [67], [83]. Since that time a large number of experiments has been carried out in order to obtain additional energy from water [73], [83]. The Japanese investigators  proved by experiment  availability of the cold nuclear fusion process during plasma electrolysis of water  [51]. The results of these experiments are discussed at the international conferences devoted to cold nuclear fusion, that’s why there is every reason to analyse this hypothesis [187].

          In order to check this hypothesis, the following experiments were performed. Two cathodes were made of iron with mass of 18.10 g and 18.15 g. The first cathode operated during 10 hours in KOH solution; the second cathode operated during the same period in NaOH solution. Mass of the first cathode remained unchanged, mass of the second one was reduced by 0.02 g.

Tadahiko Mizuno, the famous Japanese scientists (the co-author of this article), who works at the Division of Quantum Energy Engineering Research group of Nuclear System Engineering, laboratory of Nuclear Material System, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Kita-ku, North 13, West-8 Sapporo 060-8628, Japan, kindly agreed to perform chemical analysis of the cathode samples with the help of the nuclear spectroscopy method (EDX). Here are the results of his analysis. The content of chemical elements on the surface of non-operating cathode is as follows (Table 46).

Table 46. Chemical composition of the cathode surface prior its operation in the solution

 

Element

          Fe

          %

       99.90

 

The new chemical elements have appeared on the working surface of the cathode, which works in KOH solution (Table 47).

Table 47. Chemical composition of the surface of the cathode, which operates in KOH solution

 

Element

   Si

     K

   Cr

      Fe

      Cu

    %

0.94

4.50

1.90

    93.00

0.45

 

The chemical composition of the surface of the cathode, which operates in NaOH. Has proved to be different (Table 48).

Table 48. Chemical composition of the surface of the cathode, which operates in NaOH solution

 

 Element

  Al

 Si

   Cl

  K

  Ca

  Cr

 Fe

Cu

  %

1.10

0.55

  0.20

 0.60

 0.40

 1.60

 94.0

0.65

 

Numerous experiments show that up to 50% of additional thermal energy are generated during the plasma electrolysis of water, it is less than the results of the calculations originating from the existing cold nucleus  theories. That’s why it is necessary to analyse energetics of the particle creation process during the atomic nucleus transmutation.

Having considered the model of the electron we have found out that it can exist in a free state only when it has a definite electromagnetic mass. Being combined with the atomic nucleus it emits a part of energy in the form of the photons, and its electromagnetic mass is reduced. But stability of its condition does not become worse, because the energy carried away by the photons is compensated by binding energy of the electron in the atomic nucleus.

If the ambient temperature is increased, the electron begins to absorb the thermal photons and to pass to higher energy levels of the atom reducing binding with it. When the electron becomes free, it interacts with the atom only if the ambient temperature is reduced. As this temperature is reduced, it will emit the photons and sink to lower energy levels.

If the electron is in a free state due to an accidental external influence on the atom and the environment has no photons, which are necessary for it to restore its mass, it begins to absorb the ether from the environment and to restore its constants in such a way: mass, charge, magnetic moment, spin and radius of rotation. The electron acquires the stable free state only after it has restored its all constants.

Thus, if an interchange of the free state and binding state with the atom takes place due to the accidental influences on the atom, the electron restores its electromagnetic mass every time due to absorbing the ether. It means that actually it plays the role of a converter of the ether energy into the thermal photon energy.

The Japanese investigators Ohmori and Mizuno [51] registered neutron radiation during plasma electrolysis of water and reported that not only the nuclear process, but the process of the electron capture by the free protons can be the source of this radiation.

As hydrogen plasma is generated during the plasma electrolytic process of water electrolysis, there exists a tendency of the capture of the free electrons by them.

It is known that rest mass of the electron is  , rest mass of the proton is , and rest mass of the neutron is . The difference between the mass of the neutron and the mass of the proton is equal to . It is   of the mass of the electron. Thus, the proton should capture 2.531 electrons in order to become the neutron. The question arises at once: what will happen to the remained of electron mass ? The disturbed balance of masses in this process is explained by modern physics in a simple way: a neutrino is created.

As the neutrino has no charge, it is very difficult to register it. If the neutrino takes the excess mass away or replenish the lacking one, can the elementary particles execute this process by themselves?

As the photons are emitted and absorbed only by the electrons, the proton, which absorbs the electrons, cannot convert the remainder of mass of the third electron into the photon. If the electron is absorbed by the third one and gives more than a half of its mass to the proton in order to convert it into the neutron, the remaining part of mass  of the electron, which has no possibility to become the photon, is converted into a portion of the ether, which “is dissolved” and mixed with the ether in the space. The fact that plasma has no photons with the mass corresponding to the part of mass of the third electron, which has not been absorbed by the proton during its conversion into the neutron, can serve as a proof of such affirmation. Let us calculate energy of such photon.

The difference the mass of the neutron and the proton is equal to . If we subtract this value from the mass of three electrons, we’ll get mass , from which the photon should be formed

 

                   (308)             

 

If the photon is formed from this remainder of mass , its energy will be:

 

                      (309)               

 

This value of energy corresponds to roentgen spectrum, that’s why the creation of each free neutron should be accompanied by the creation of one roentgen photon. If it does not take place, we have two opportunities: the first one – we should think that in the case when the neutron is created, the neutrino was formed from mass  and flew away in the unknown direction; the second one – there were no conditions for the formation of the photons in the process being considered, and mass , which failed to be formed as a particle, “was dissolved” in the ether. Which variant is closer to the truth?  There is no exact answer, but it is known that the Japanese scientists registered only neutron radiation with intensity of 50,000 neutrons per second, and they failed to register roentgen radiation [51].

If in this process the roentgen photons were created, they would not exceed heat efficacy of the plasma electrolytic process, because they would not be the thermal photons. The thermal photons are radiated and absorbed when the electrons make the energy transitions to the energy levels, which are the most remote from the atomic nuclei, where the infrared photons and neighbouring ones from the optical range of the spectrum with energies of (0.001-3.3) eV are generated (Table 34).

Thus, the neutron fusion processes during the plasma water electrolysis will not generate additional thermal energy. But the appearance of the neutrons in plasma will promote the formation of the deuterium nuclei (Fig. 21, b) and, possibly, of tritium (Fig. 21, c). As during these processes the mass balance is almost not  changed, we have no reason to anticipate the appearance of additional energies during the formation of deuterium and tritium.

In order to become a proton, the neutron should emit something with mass =23.058×10-31 kg. Let us concert this mass into energy.

 

                                         (310)

 

This energy corresponds to the photons of the gamma range. Thus, if during plasma water electrolysis the process of helium atom formation takes place, it should be accompanied by gamma radiation. If there is no such radiation, and the helium atoms are still formed, the above mentioned portion of mass  is taken away by neutrino or this mass, which has no possibility to become a photon, “is dissolved” in the environment, i.e. it passes into a state of ether [84]. As the roentgen photons and the gamma photons are not the thermal ones, this process does not give excessive thermal energy.

Let us carry out the preliminary analysis of the data being obtained (Tables  46, 47, 48).

As iron is the cathode material, the nuclei of its atoms are the targets of the atomic nuclei of potassium, alkaline metal. During the transmutation of the iron nuclei (Fig. 96, b), the atomic nuclei of chromium (Fig. 96 a) and the atomic nuclei of copper (Fig. 96, c) are formed.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 


                                              a)  Cr (24,28)                   b)  Fe (26,28)               c) Cu (29,34)                          

 

Fig. 96. Diagrams of the atomic nuclei of: a) chromium, b) iron, c) copper

 

 

When the atomic nucleus of iron (Fig. 96, b) pass into the atomic nucleus of chromium (Fig. 96, a), two protons and two neutrons are released; two atoms of deuterium or one atom of helium can be formed from them. If the neutrons pass into the protons, four atoms of hydrogen are formed.

It is easy to see (Fig. 96) that the atomic nucleus of iron (Fig. 96, b) should lose two upper protons and two neutrons in order to pass into the atomic nucleus of chromium (Fig. 96, a).

Three additional protons and six neutrons (total 9 nucleons) are required for the formation of the atomic nucleus of copper (Fig. 96, c) from the atomic nucleus of iron. As there are chromium atoms, which, as we think, are formed from the atomic nuclei of iron, on the cathode surface (Table 47) 4fold more than the atoms of copper, the solution is sure to have superfluous protons and neutrons of the destroyed atomic nuclei of iron, and we can determined their approximate relative quantity.

Let us suppose that four nuclei of the iron atoms pass into the nuclei of the chromium atom. The total quantity of free protons and neutrons (nucleons) is equal to 16. As one atom of copper falls on each four atoms of chromium, 9 nucleons are spent for the formation of one nucleus of the copper atom, and 7 nucleons remain free.

Let us see what is formed when the nucleus of the potassium atom is destroyed. Potassium is situated in the first group of the fourth period of the periodic law. Its nucleus contains 19 protons and 20 neutrons (Fig. 97, a).

In Fig. 97, a, we can see a weak link of the nucleus of the potassium atom. It is situated in the middle of its axis neutrons. When the transmutation of the nuclei of the potassium atoms takes place, the nuclei of the oxygen atoms can be formed (Fig. 97, b) as well as its isotopes and the nuclei of the silicon atoms (Fig. 97, c).

The analysis of the structure of the nuclei of the potassium atom (Fig. 97, a) shows that its is the most probable source of the nucleus of the silicon atom (Fig. 97, b), which atoms appear on the cathode (Table 47).

It is easy to count that during the destruction of one nucleus of the potassium atom and the creation of one nucleus of the silicon atom 5 free protons and 6 free neutrons, i.e. 11 nucleons, are formed.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 


                                a) K (19,20)                       b) O (8,8)                            c) Si (14,14)

 

Fig. 97. Diagrams of the atomic nuclei of: a) potassium,  b) oxygen, c) silicon

 

 

Thus, the transmutation of the nuclei of the iron atoms and the potassium atoms results in the formation of free protons and neutrons. As the protons cannot exist in free state, the hydrogen atoms are created from them. If the protons are connected with the neutrons after the destruction of the nuclei of the iron atoms and the potassium atoms, the formation of deuterium, tritium and helium is possible.

In any of these cases, the atoms and the molecules of hydrogen are formed. We have already shown that the processes of fusion of the atoms and the molecules of hydrogen and its isotopes result in occurrence  of additional thermal energy.

Let us pay attention to the main fact – absence of the sodium atoms in the cathode material. It is natural that the potassium atoms have appeared on the cathode, which operated in KOH solution (Table 48). Why are no sodium atoms on the cathode, which operated in NaOH solution? The answer is as follows: the nuclei of the sodium toms are completely destroyed during the plasma electrolytic process. The presence of potassium on the surface of the cathode, which operated in NaOH solution (Table 48), can be explained by insufficient ablution of the reactor after the operation with KOH solution.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                                       a) Na (11,12)                         b) Al (13,14)                     c) Cl (17,18)                 

 

Fig. 98. Diagrams of the atomic nuclei of: a) sodium, b) aluminium, c) chlorine

 

 

As free protons and neutrons appear during the destruction of the nucleus of the sodium atom, some nuclei of this element begin to form the atomic nuclei of aluminium (Fig. 98, b), chlorine (Fig. 98, c) and calcium (Fig. 99).

But not all free protons and neutrons are spent for the construction of the atomic nuclei of aluminium, chlorine and calcium. A part of them is spent for the hydrogen atom formation.

If we knew the total quantity of transmutating atomic nuclei of iron, potassium and sodium as well as the exact composition of the gases generated during the plasma electrolytic process, it would be possible to determine the atomic nuclei being formed from additional nucleons. Now we can only suppose that the majority of new nuclei are the protons, i.e. the nuclei of the hydrogen atoms.

The analysis of these Tables shows that transmutation of the nuclei of iron, of which the cathodes are made, results in the formation of chromium and copper in both cases. Apparently, aluminium (Fig 98, b), chlorine (Fig. 98,c) and calcium (Fig. 99) are formed from the destroyed sodium nuclei. In any case, free protons and neutrons are formed.

But not all free protons and neutrons are spent for the formation of the atomic nuclei of aluminium, chlorine and calcium. A part of them is spent for the formation of the hydrogen atoms. In any case, the atoms and the molecules of hydrogen are formed.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 


                                                                                              Ca (20,20)

 

Fig. 99. Diagram of the nucleus of the calcium atom

 

 

Absence of sodium atoms on the surface of the cathode (Table 48) is an apparent feature of destruction of the nuclei of this element during the plasma electrolytic process. As relative quantity of the atoms of aluminium, chlorine and calcium, which are formed and settled at the cathode, is not large, the solution of NaOH generates more gases than the solution of KaOH (Table 44).

Another variant is possible. When the atoms of alkali metal bombard the cathode atoms, they are destroyed completely and destroy the atoms of the cathode materials. Under the notion “completely” we’ll understand such state when both the atom and the nucleus are destroyed. In this case, the protons of the destroyed nuclei begin to form the hydrogen atoms. The process of fusion of the atoms and the molecules of hydrogen generate additional thermal energy.

Transmutation of the atomic nuclei of alkaline metals and the atomic nuclei of the cathode material during plasma electrolysis of water increases the content of gases in the gas-vapour mixture. Additional thermal energy is generated not by the nuclear process, but the process of fusion of the atoms and the molecules of hydrogen, which are formed from the destroyed molecules of water and from the atomic nuclei of alkaline metals and the atomic nuclei of the cathode.

            Plasma electrolytic process opens new prospects in study of matter on the nuclear, atomic and molecular levels.

 




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